SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

The sixth century Be is seen as the beginning of the phase of the Northern Black Polished (NBP) ware. (The third century Be being associated with the mid-NBP phase when burnt bricks and ringwell began to be used). What is called as the 'second urbanisation in India' following the end of the Indus Valley Civilisation, is said to have begun in this period. Pataliputra was founded in the fifth century. Gties such as Banaras, Vaisali, Taxila, Ayodhya, Ujjain, Kausambi, Rajagriha and Mathura, mainly established along the banks of rivers, became well-connected trade routes. Important towns were fortified. Houses were constructed of wood or even brick. Trade was practised by using money as the names of coins, nishka and satamana, in the Vedic texts suggest.

The beginnings of the legal and judicial systems in India are traced to this period. The tribal community was replaced by the class-distinct society. The duties of the four varnas-brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaisyas and sudras-were prescribed in the Dharmasutras. The varna classification I provided the basis of civil and criminal law. The highest varna was considered the purest and hence was prescribed a higher order of moral conduct. The emergence and spread of Jainism and Buddhism could not improve the social status of the sudras though they were embraced by the new religious orders. The age of the Buddha is significant in that ancient Indian polity and social set-up actually originated at this time.

A food-producing economy emerged with the practice of agriculture on a wide scale by using iron implements. There was 'peasant proprietorship' in rural areas as there were no landlords. But a landowner could. not sell or mortgage his land without the permission of the village council. Of the agricultural products, rice was the staple food-crop in Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh. The king received the tithes and his share, which varied from one­sixth to a twelfth of the produce, from the headman. The village residents, endowed with a sturdy civic spirit, unit­edly undertook tasks such as laying irrigation channels, building mote-hills, rest houses, etc. The women extended their full cooperation in these works of public utility. On the whole, each village was self-sufficient, and life was simple and unsophisticated.

Considerable progress was also made in such crafts as wood-work, architecture, pottery, weaving, ivory-work, etc, H was the general practice of the people to follow the occupation of their ancestors. Castes did not always deter­mine crafts.
The guild system was becoming popular. People from the same profession normally organised themselves into guilds and often lived, or had their business centre, in one ward or street of the town. The Jatakas name at least eighteen such groups.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NEW RELIGIOUS MOVE­MENTS

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NEW RELIGIOUS MOVE­MENTS

The rise and growth of the new religions in the sixth century Be brought some important transformation in the society of the day. These changes may be summarised as follows:

(i) The period witnessed the popularisation of the idea of social equality. New religions accepted the entry of different castes in their religious order. It undermined the hitherto dominant position of brahmins. Equally significant was the equal status given to women.
(ii) Religious movements encouraged the trading community by sanctioning sea voyages, which were con. demned by brahmanical texts. Unlike Brahmanism, the new religious ideas did not assign an inferior position to traders. This provided a great morale boost up to trading commu­nity. Further, the new religions laid emphasis on karma for future .life. This indirectly favoured the activities of the trading community.
(iii) New religions paved the way for the development of vernacular literature. Prakrit, Pali and Ardha Magadhi were the languages used by religious philosophers in spreading their ideas. Religious books were written in these languages. The Jains, for the first time, gave a literary shape to Ardha-Magadhi, a mixed dialect, by using the dialect as the medium of their writings.

MATERIALISM

MATERIALISM

Buddha, Mahavira, Gosala, and many lesser teachers of the sixth century Be ignored the gods, but they were not thoroughgoing atheists and materialists. All admitted the existence of supernatural beings of strictly limited powers, and all accepted the fun<;iamental doctrine of transmigra­tion, though they interpreted its mechanics individually. Some thinkers, however, rejected all immaterial categories completely.
Important Materialistic Sects Some of the materialistic sects are given below.
Uchchedavada or Annihilationism The sect was estab­lished by Ajita Kesakambalin, a contemporary of Buddha. According to it, the concept of rebirth and life after death are false and as such there is no life after the present one. Annihilationism did not believe in the existence of soul.

Antinomianism Antinomianism was propagated by Purana Kassapa. According to Kassapa, there is nothing like bad consequences of bad works and good consequences of good works. Non-violence, sacrifices, rituals, meditation, helping others, etc., are not pious works; nor are lying, stealing and killing sins. According to this sect, no one does any type of work. So it preached inactivism (Akriyavad).
Atomism The Atomism sect was established by Pakuda Katyayana. The sect believed that just as earth, water, air and light are primary indestructible elements, so are sorrow, happiness and life. It is suggested that the later Vaisheshika school originated from this idea.

Lokayat The Lokayat, an important materialistic sect, was established by Charvaka. Charvaka did not believe in the existence of God and was opposed to the Vedas. He did not believe in rebirth and soul either. According to him, one should lead a lustful life even if it entail~ing in debt (Yawat jivet sukham jivet, Rinam kritwa ghritam pibet).

Scepticism The propounder of this sect was Sanjaya Bellathiputta. According to this sect, the existence of heaven, soul, god, virtues, sin, etc., cannot be determined with certainty.

Besides numerous quotations attributed to materialists in religious and philosophical works, one anti-religious philosophical text has survived. This is the Jattvopaplavasimha ("The Lion Destroying all Religious Truth") written by a certain Jayarasi in the eighth century AD.